APO RESEARCH · REPORT
Piston Pump
A piston pump changes the volume of a working chamber through reciprocating piston motion. Inlet and outlet flow control allows successive strokes to draw in liquid and deliver it under pressure.

Product & engineering
Understand the product.
A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases. There are mainly two kinds of piston pumps, which are lift pump and force pump. The more complicated types are the Axial piston pump and Radial piston pump. These types may be operated either by hand or by an engine. With the development of the technology in this industry, the piston pumps are more automated and intelligent nowadays, and can provide convenience for more complicated and high-standard projects. Some piston pumps are replaced by the rotary pumps or other pumps, but piston pumps are still applied in many fields and are the basic industrial products.
There are many kinds of piston pumps in the market, the professional applications differed and the price also has a wide range according to different types.
Piston and plunger configurations use different moving sealing arrangements. Displacement, speed and leakage determine delivered flow, while the downstream circuit establishes pressure demand.
Reciprocation produces pulsating delivery. Suction acceleration, valve dynamics and pressure protection affect both hydraulic performance and mechanical loading.
What turns activity into demand
The pump's displacement mechanism must be matched to inlet supply and downstream pressure control. Distinguish pump assemblies from hydraulic motors, power units and replacement sealing components.
The commercial boundary
Distinguish pump assemblies from hydraulic motors, power units and replacement sealing components.
Technical reading
Selected research
Industry Growth & Trends
Global Piston Pump Industry Growth and Trends Forecast to 2032
Market perspective
A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases. There are mainly two kinds of piston pumps, which are lift pump and force pump. The more complicated types are the Axial piston pump and Radial piston pump. These types may be operated either by hand or by an engine. With the development of the technology in this industry, the piston pumps are more automated and intelligent nowadays, and can provide convenience for more complicated and high-standard projects. Some piston pumps are replaced by the rotary pumps or other pumps, but piston pumps are still applied in many fields and are the basic industrial products.
There are many kinds of piston pumps in the market, the professional applications differed and the price also has a wide range according to different types.
Global Piston Pump key players include Bosch Rexroth Corporation, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, FMC Technologies, etc. Global top three manufacturers hold a share about 30%.
Read the full market overview
Europe is the largest market, with a share about 25%, followed by United States and China, both have a share about 45 percent.
In terms of product, Axial Piston Pump is the largest segment, with a share about 85%. And in terms of application, the largest application is General Industries, followed by Oil and Gas Industry.
Report Scope
This report provides a structured, data-driven view of the global Piston Pump market, combining harmonized quantitative metrics with targeted qualitative insight to support business and growth strategy, market positioning, and capital allocation.
The Piston Pump market size, estimates, and forecasts are presented in terms of sales volume (k units) and revenue (US$ million), with 2025 as the base year and historical and forecast data for 2021-2032. The report segments the global Piston Pump market by Type, Application, region/country, and company, provides regional market sizes at the segment level, profiles the competitive landscape and key players and their market ranks, and reviews technology trends and new product developments relevant toPiston Pump.
Key Companies & Market Share Insights
This section analyzes the strategies and performance of leading manufacturers in the global Piston Pump market, including portfolio focus, innovation and product development, mergers and acquisitions, collaborations, and geographic expansion used to sustain or enhance competitive positions. It also summarizes recent corporate developments and key financial indicators and provides global revenue, price, and sales volume data by manufacturer for 2020-2025, enabling benchmarking of scale, pricing, and market share and supporting assessment of market concentration through indicators such as CR5 and CR10.
Piston Pump Market by Company
Bosch Rexroth Corporation
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
FMC Technologies
Interpump Group
Annovi Reverberi S.p.A
Comet
Flowserve
Nikkiso
PSM-Hydraulics
Eaton
Oilgear
Kamat
Huade
Liyuan
Ini Hydraulic
Hengyuan Hydraulic
Shanggao
Qidong High Pressure
Hilead Hydraulic
Aovite
CNSP
Piston Pump Segment by Type
Lift Pump
Force Pump
Axial Piston Pump
Radial Piston Pump
Piston Pump Segment by Application
Chemical Processing Industry
General Industries
Primary Metals Industry
Oil and Gas Industry
Power Generation Industry
Mining Industry
Others
Piston Pump Segment by Region
North America
United States
Canada
Mexico
Europe
Germany
France
U.K.
Italy
Russia
Spain
Netherlands
Switzerland
Sweden
Poland
Asia-Pacific
China
Japan
South Korea
India
Australia
Taiwan
Southeast Asia
South America
Brazil
Argentina
Chile
Middle East & Africa
Egypt
South Africa
Israel
Türkiye
GCC Countries
Key Drivers & Barriers
High-impact rendering factors and drivers have been studied in this report to aid the readers to understand the general development. Moreover, the report includes restraints and challenges that may act as stumbling blocks on the way of the players. This will assist the users to be attentive and make informed decisions related to business. Specialists have also laid their focus on the upcoming business prospects.
Reasons to Buy This Report
1. This report will help the readers to understand the competition within the industries and strategies for the competitive environment to enhance the potential profit. The report also focuses on the competitive landscape of the global Piston Pump market, and introduces in detail the market share, industry ranking, competitor ecosystem, market performance, new product development, operation situation, expansion, and acquisition. etc. of the main players, which helps the readers to identify the main competitors and deeply understand the competition pattern of the market.
2. This report will help stakeholders to understand the global industry status and trends of Piston Pump and provides them with information on key market drivers, restraints, challenges, and opportunities.
3. This report will help stakeholders to understand competitors better and gain more insights to strengthen their position in their businesses. The competitive landscape section includes the market share and rank (in volume and value), competitor ecosystem, new product development, expansion, and acquisition.
4. This report stays updated with novel technology integration, features, and the latest developments in the market.
5. This report helps stakeholders to gain insights into which regions to target globally.
6. This report helps stakeholders to gain insights into the end-user perception concerning the adoption of Piston Pump.
7. This report helps stakeholders to identify some of the key players in the market and understand their valuable contribution.
Chapter Outline
Chapter 1: Introduces the study scope of this report, executive summary of market segments by type, market size segments for North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, South America, Middle East & Africa.
Chapter 2: Introduces the market dynamics, latest developments of the market, the driving factors and restrictive factors of the market, the challenges and risks faced by manufacturers in the industry, and the analysis of relevant policies in the industry.
Chapter 3: Detailed analysis of Piston Pump manufacturers competitive landscape, price, sales, revenue, market share and ranking, latest development plan, merger, and acquisition information, etc.
Chapter 4: Sales, revenue of Piston Pump in regional level. It provides a quantitative analysis of the market size and development potential of each region and introduces the future development prospects, and market space in the world.
Chapter 5: Introduces market segments by application, market size segment for North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, South America, Middle East & Africa.
Chapter 6: Provides profiles of key players, introducing the basic situation of the main companies in the market in detail, including product sales, revenue, price, gross margin, product introduction, recent development, etc.
Chapter 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11: North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, South America, Middle East & Africa, sales and revenue by country.
Chapter 12: Analysis of industrial chain, key raw materials, manufacturing cost, and market dynamics.
Chapter 13: Concluding Insights of the report.
More report detail
Tables and figures
Scope & coverage.
Types
- Lift Pump
- Force Pump
- Axial Piston Pump
- Radial Piston Pump
Applications
- Chemical Processing Industry
- General Industries
- Primary Metals Industry
- Oil and Gas Industry
- Power Generation Industry
- Mining Industry
- Others
Companies covered
- Bosch Rexroth Corporation
- Kawasaki Heavy Industries
- FMC Technologies
- Interpump Group
- Annovi Reverberi S.p.A
- Comet
- Flowserve
- Nikkiso
- PSM-Hydraulics
- Eaton
- Oilgear
- Kamat
- Huade
- Liyuan
- Ini Hydraulic
- Hengyuan Hydraulic
- Shanggao
- Qidong High Pressure
- Hilead Hydraulic
- Aovite
- CNSP
Inside the report.
1 Market Overview
- 1.1 Product Definition
- 1.2 Global Market Growth Prospects
- 1.2.1 Global Piston Pump Market Size Estimates and Forecasts (2021-2032)
- 1.2.2 Global Piston Pump Sales Estimates and Forecasts (2021-2032)
- 1.3 Piston Pump Market by Type
- 1.3.1 Lift Pump
- 1.3.2 Force Pump
- 1.3.3 Axial Piston Pump
- 1.3.4 Radial Piston Pump
- 1.4 Global Piston Pump Market Size by Type
- 1.4.1 Global Piston Pump Market Size Overview by Type (2021-2032)
- 1.4.2 Global Piston Pump Historic Market Size Review by Type (2021-2026)
- 1.4.3 Global Piston Pump Forecasted Market Size by Type (2027-2032)
- 1.5 Key Regions Market Size by Type
- 1.5.1 North America Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Type (2021-2026)
- 1.5.2 Europe Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Type (2021-2026)
- 1.5.3 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Type (2021-2026)
- 1.5.4 South America Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Type (2021-2026)
- 1.5.5 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Type (2021-2026)
2 Global Market Dynamics
- 2.1 Piston Pump Industry Trends
- 2.2 Piston Pump Industry Drivers
- 2.3 Piston Pump Industry Opportunities and Challenges
- 2.4 Piston Pump Industry Restraints
3 Market Competitive Landscape by Company
- 3.1 Global Top Players by Piston Pump Revenue (2021-2026)
- 3.2 Global Top Players by Piston Pump Sales (2021-2026)
- 3.3 Global Top Players by Piston Pump Price (2021-2026)
- 3.4 Global Piston Pump Industry Company Ranking, 2024 VS 2025 VS 2026
- 3.5 Global Piston Pump Major Company Production Sites & Headquarters
- 3.6 Global Piston Pump Company, Product Type & Application
- 3.7 Global Piston Pump Company Establishment Date
- 3.8 Market Competitive Analysis
- 3.8.1 Global Piston Pump Market CR5 and HHI
- 3.8.2 Global Top 5 and 10 Piston Pump Players Market Share by Revenue in 2025
- 3.8.3 2025 Piston Pump Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3
4 Piston Pump Regional Status and Outlook
- 4.1 Global Piston Pump Market Size and CAGR by Region: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 4.2 Global Piston Pump Historic Market Size by Region
- 4.2.1 Global Piston Pump Sales in Volume by Region (2021-2026)
- 4.2.2 Global Piston Pump Sales in Value by Region (2021-2026)
- 4.2.3 Global Piston Pump Sales (Volume & Value), Price and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 4.3 Global Piston Pump Forecasted Market Size by Region
- 4.3.1 Global Piston Pump Sales in Volume by Region (2027-2032)
- 4.3.2 Global Piston Pump Sales in Value by Region (2027-2032)
- 4.3.3 Global Piston Pump Sales (Volume & Value), Price and Gross Margin (2027-2032)
5 Piston Pump by Application
- 5.1 Piston Pump Market by Application
- 5.1.1 Chemical Processing Industry
- 5.1.2 General Industries
- 5.1.3 Primary Metals Industry
- 5.1.4 Oil and Gas Industry
- 5.1.5 Power Generation Industry
- 5.1.6 Mining Industry
- 5.1.7 Others
- 5.2 Global Piston Pump Market Size by Application
- 5.2.1 Global Piston Pump Market Size Overview by Application (2021-2032)
- 5.2.2 Global Piston Pump Historic Market Size Review by Application (2021-2026)
- 5.2.3 Global Piston Pump Forecasted Market Size by Application (2027-2032)
- 5.3 Key Regions Market Size by Application
- 5.3.1 North America Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Application (2021-2026)
- 5.3.2 Europe Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Application (2021-2026)
- 5.3.3 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Application (2021-2026)
- 5.3.4 South America Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Application (2021-2026)
- 5.3.5 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales Breakdown by Application (2021-2026)
6 Company Profiles
- 6.1 Bosch Rexroth Corporation
- 6.1.1 Bosch Rexroth Corporation Company Information
- 6.1.2 Bosch Rexroth Corporation Business Overview
- 6.1.3 Bosch Rexroth Corporation Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.1.4 Bosch Rexroth Corporation Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.1.5 Bosch Rexroth Corporation Recent Developments
- 6.2 Kawasaki Heavy Industries
- 6.2.1 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Company Information
- 6.2.2 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Business Overview
- 6.2.3 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.2.4 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.2.5 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Recent Developments
- 6.3 FMC Technologies
- 6.3.1 FMC Technologies Company Information
- 6.3.2 FMC Technologies Business Overview
- 6.3.3 FMC Technologies Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.3.4 FMC Technologies Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.3.5 FMC Technologies Recent Developments
- 6.4 Interpump Group
- 6.4.1 Interpump Group Company Information
- 6.4.2 Interpump Group Business Overview
- 6.4.3 Interpump Group Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.4.4 Interpump Group Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.4.5 Interpump Group Recent Developments
- 6.5 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A
- 6.5.1 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A Company Information
- 6.5.2 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A Business Overview
- 6.5.3 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.5.4 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.5.5 Annovi Reverberi S.p.A Recent Developments
- 6.6 Comet
- 6.6.1 Comet Company Information
- 6.6.2 Comet Business Overview
- 6.6.3 Comet Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.6.4 Comet Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.6.5 Comet Recent Developments
- 6.7 Flowserve
- 6.7.1 Flowserve Company Information
- 6.7.2 Flowserve Business Overview
- 6.7.3 Flowserve Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.7.4 Flowserve Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.7.5 Flowserve Recent Developments
- 6.8 Nikkiso
- 6.8.1 Nikkiso Company Information
- 6.8.2 Nikkiso Business Overview
- 6.8.3 Nikkiso Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.8.4 Nikkiso Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.8.5 Nikkiso Recent Developments
- 6.9 PSM-Hydraulics
- 6.9.1 PSM-Hydraulics Company Information
- 6.9.2 PSM-Hydraulics Business Overview
- 6.9.3 PSM-Hydraulics Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.9.4 PSM-Hydraulics Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.9.5 PSM-Hydraulics Recent Developments
- 6.10 Eaton
- 6.10.1 Eaton Company Information
- 6.10.2 Eaton Business Overview
- 6.10.3 Eaton Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.10.4 Eaton Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.10.5 Eaton Recent Developments
- 6.11 Oilgear
- 6.11.1 Oilgear Company Information
- 6.11.2 Oilgear Business Overview
- 6.11.3 Oilgear Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.11.4 Oilgear Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.11.5 Oilgear Recent Developments
- 6.12 Kamat
- 6.12.1 Kamat Company Information
- 6.12.2 Kamat Business Overview
- 6.12.3 Kamat Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.12.4 Kamat Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.12.5 Kamat Recent Developments
- 6.13 Huade
- 6.13.1 Huade Company Information
- 6.13.2 Huade Business Overview
- 6.13.3 Huade Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.13.4 Huade Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.13.5 Huade Recent Developments
- 6.14 Liyuan
- 6.14.1 Liyuan Company Information
- 6.14.2 Liyuan Business Overview
- 6.14.3 Liyuan Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.14.4 Liyuan Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.14.5 Liyuan Recent Developments
- 6.15 Ini Hydraulic
- 6.15.1 Ini Hydraulic Company Information
- 6.15.2 Ini Hydraulic Business Overview
- 6.15.3 Ini Hydraulic Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.15.4 Ini Hydraulic Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.15.5 Ini Hydraulic Recent Developments
- 6.16 Hengyuan Hydraulic
- 6.16.1 Hengyuan Hydraulic Company Information
- 6.16.2 Hengyuan Hydraulic Business Overview
- 6.16.3 Hengyuan Hydraulic Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.16.4 Hengyuan Hydraulic Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.16.5 Hengyuan Hydraulic Recent Developments
- 6.17 Shanggao
- 6.17.1 Shanggao Company Information
- 6.17.2 Shanggao Business Overview
- 6.17.3 Shanggao Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.17.4 Shanggao Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.17.5 Shanggao Recent Developments
- 6.18 Qidong High Pressure
- 6.18.1 Qidong High Pressure Company Information
- 6.18.2 Qidong High Pressure Business Overview
- 6.18.3 Qidong High Pressure Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.18.4 Qidong High Pressure Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.18.5 Qidong High Pressure Recent Developments
- 6.19 Hilead Hydraulic
- 6.19.1 Hilead Hydraulic Company Information
- 6.19.2 Hilead Hydraulic Business Overview
- 6.19.3 Hilead Hydraulic Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.19.4 Hilead Hydraulic Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.19.5 Hilead Hydraulic Recent Developments
- 6.20 Aovite
- 6.20.1 Aovite Company Information
- 6.20.2 Aovite Business Overview
- 6.20.3 Aovite Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.20.4 Aovite Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.20.5 Aovite Recent Developments
- 6.21 CNSP
- 6.21.1 CNSP Company Information
- 6.21.2 CNSP Business Overview
- 6.21.3 CNSP Piston Pump Sales, Revenue and Gross Margin (2021-2026)
- 6.21.4 CNSP Piston Pump Product Portfolio
- 6.21.5 CNSP Recent Developments
7 North America by Country
- 7.1 North America Piston Pump Sales by Country
- 7.1.1 North America Piston Pump Sales Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 7.1.2 North America Piston Pump Sales by Country (2021-2026)
- 7.1.3 North America Piston Pump Sales Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
- 7.2 North America Piston Pump Market Size by Country
- 7.2.1 North America Piston Pump Market Size Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 7.2.2 North America Piston Pump Market Size by Country (2021-2026)
- 7.2.3 North America Piston Pump Market Size Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
8 Europe by Country
- 8.1 Europe Piston Pump Sales by Country
- 8.1.1 Europe Piston Pump Sales Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 8.1.2 Europe Piston Pump Sales by Country (2021-2026)
- 8.1.3 Europe Piston Pump Sales Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
- 8.2 Europe Piston Pump Market Size by Country
- 8.2.1 Europe Piston Pump Market Size Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 8.2.2 Europe Piston Pump Market Size by Country (2021-2026)
- 8.2.3 Europe Piston Pump Market Size Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
9 Asia-Pacific by Country
- 9.1 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales by Country
- 9.1.1 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 9.1.2 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales by Country (2021-2026)
- 9.1.3 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Sales Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
- 9.2 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Market Size by Country
- 9.2.1 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Market Size Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 9.2.2 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Market Size by Country (2021-2026)
- 9.2.3 Asia-Pacific Piston Pump Market Size Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
10 South America by Country
- 10.1 South America Piston Pump Sales by Country
- 10.1.1 South America Piston Pump Sales Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 10.1.2 South America Piston Pump Sales by Country (2021-2026)
- 10.1.3 South America Piston Pump Sales Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
- 10.2 South America Piston Pump Market Size by Country
- 10.2.1 South America Piston Pump Market Size Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 10.2.2 South America Piston Pump Market Size by Country (2021-2026)
- 10.2.3 South America Piston Pump Market Size Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
11 Middle East and Africa by Country
- 11.1 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales by Country
- 11.1.1 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 11.1.2 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales by Country (2021-2026)
- 11.1.3 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Sales Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
- 11.2 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Market Size by Country
- 11.2.1 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Market Size Growth Rate (CAGR) by Country: 2021 VS 2025 VS 2032
- 11.2.2 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Market Size by Country (2021-2026)
- 11.2.3 Middle East and Africa Piston Pump Market Size Forecast by Country (2027-2032)
12 Value Chain and Sales Channels Analysis
- 12.1 Piston Pump Value Chain Analysis
- 12.1.1 Piston Pump Key Raw Materials
- 12.1.2 Key Raw Materials Price
- 12.1.3 Raw Materials Key Suppliers
- 12.1.4 Manufacturing Cost Structure
- 12.1.5 Piston Pump Production Mode & Process
- 12.2 Piston Pump Sales Channels Analysis
- 12.2.1 Direct Comparison with Distribution Share
- 12.2.2 Piston Pump Distributors
- 12.2.3 Piston Pump Customers
13 Concluding Insights
14 Appendix
- 14.1 Reasons for Doing This Study
- 14.2 Research Methodology
- 14.3 Research Process
- 14.4 Authors List of This Report
- 14.5 Data Source
- 14.5.1 Secondary Sources
- 14.5.2 Primary Sources
- 14.6 Disclaimer
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